The Meissner Effect

The Meissner effect is the expulsion of a magnetic field from a superconductor during its transition to the superconducting state. The German physicists Walther Meissner and Robert Ochsenfeld discovered the phenomenon in 1933 by measuring the magnetic field distribution outside superconducting tin and lead samples.[1] The samples, in the presence of an applied magnetic field, were cooled below what is called their superconducting transition temperature. Below the transition temperature the samples canceled nearly all magnetic fields inside. They detected this effect only indirectly; because the magnetic flux is conserved by a superconductor, when the interior field decreased the exterior field increased. The experiment demonstrated for the first time that superconductors were more than just perfect conductors and provided a uniquely defining property of the superconducting state.

Explanation

In a weak applied field, a superconductor "expels" nearly all magnetic flux. It does this by setting up electric currents near its surface. The magnetic field of these surface currents cancels the applied magnetic field within the bulk of the superconductor. As the field expulsion, or cancellation, does not change with time, the currents producing this effect (called persistent currents) do not decay with time. Therefore the conductivity can be thought of as infinite: a superconductor.
Near the surface, within a distance called the London penetration depth, the magnetic field is not completely canceled. Each superconducting material has its own characteristic penetration depth.
Any perfect conductor will prevent any change to magnetic flux passing through its surface due to ordinary electromagnetic induction at zero resistance. The Meissner effect is distinct from this: when an ordinary conductor is cooled so that it makes the transition to a superconducting state in the presence of a constant applied magnetic field, the magnetic flux is expelled during the transition. This effect cannot be explained by infinite conductivity alone. Its explanation is more complex and was first given in the London equations by the brothers Fritz and Heinz London.

Perfect Diamagnetism

Superconductors in the Meissner state exhibit perfect diamagnetism, or superdiamagnetism, meaning that the total magnetic field is very close to zero deep inside them (many penetration depths from the surface). This means that their magnetic susceptibility, χv = −1. Diamagnetics are defined by the generation of a spontaneous magnetization of a material which directly opposes the direction of an applied field. However, the fundamental origins of diamagnetism in superconductors and normal materials are very different. In normal materials diamagnetism arises as a direct result of the orbital spin of electrons about the nuclei of an atom induced electromagnetically by the application of an applied field. In superconductors the illusion of perfect diamagnetism arises from persistent screening currents which flow to oppose the applied field (the meissner effect); not solely the orbital spin.
Very recently, it has been shown theoretically that the Meissner effect may exhibit paramagnetism in some layered superconductors but so far this paramagnetic intrinsic Meissner effect has not been experimentally observed. Mario Rabinowitz and his colleagues showed that a virtual violation of the Meissner effect is possible.

Consequences

The discovery of the Meissner effect led to the phenomenological theory of superconductivity by Fritz and Heinz London in 1935. This theory explained resistanceless transport and the Meissner effect, and allowed the first theoretical predictions for superconductivity to be made. However, this theory only explained experimental observations—it did not allow the microscopic origins of the superconducting properties to be identified. Nevertheless, it became a requirement on all microscopic theories to be able to reproduce this effect. This was done successfully by the BCS theory in 1957. However, both phenomenological Londons’ theory and microscopic BCS one describe the Meissner effect in its steady state only and cannot explain the transient stage when the supercurrent grows from zero to its steady value. Indeed, under initial conditions of the Meissner effect, Lorentz force equals to zero, and there are no other electromotive forces in superconductor to accelerate the electrons. This fundamental problem of the conventional theory of the Meissner effect has been pointed out by J. E. Hirsch in The Lorentz force and superconductivity [2] . He has also proposed the dynamical explanation of the Meissner effect in Spin Meissner effect in superconductors and the origin of the Meissner effect [3].


Paradigm for the Higgs mechanism

The Meissner effect of superconductivity serves as an important paradigm for the generation mechanism of a mass M (i.e. a reciprocal range, λM: = h / (Mc) where h is Planck constant and c is speed of light) for a gauge field. In fact, this analogy is an abelian example for the Higgs mechanism, through which in high-energy physics the masses of the electroweak gauge particles, W±
and Z are generated. The length λM is identical with "London's penetration depth" in the theory of superconductivity.

Observation

Before the discovery of high-temperature superconductivity, observation of the Meissner effect was difficult, because the applied fields had to be relatively small (the measurements need to be made far from the phase boundary). But with yttrium barium copper oxide, the effect can be demonstrated using liquid nitrogen. Permanent magnets can be made to levitate.

The Omega Point

The Omega Point is a term coined by the French Jesuit Pierre Teilhard de Chardin (1881–1955) to denote the state of the maximum organized complexity (complexity combined with centrality), towards which the universe is evolving.

Definition:
Teilhard's universe is subdivided into matter and love, which are the tangential (rotational) and the radial (centripetal) components of the same spiral flow of fundamental psychic energy:

"We shall assume that, essentially, all energy is psychic in nature; but add that in each particular element this fundamental energy is divided into two distinct components: a tangential energy which links the element with all others of the same order (that is to say, of the same complexity and the same centricity) as itself in the universe; and a radial energy which draws it towards even greater complexity and centricity—in other words forwards." <...>

"Driven by the forces of love, the fragments of the world seek each other so that the world may come to being. This is no metaphor; and it is much more than poetry. Whether as a force or a curvature, the universal gravity of bodies, so striking to us, is merely the reverse or shadow of that which really moves nature. To perceive cosmic energy 'at the fount' we must, if there is a within of things, go down into the internal or radial zone of spiritual attractions. Love in all its subtleties is nothing more, and nothing less, than the more or less direct trace marked on the heart of the element by the psychical convergence of the universe upon itself."
—Chardin, Pierre Teilhard de, The Phenomenon of Man

Under the centripetal attraction of cosmic love, the universe's matter undergoes involution (in-formation) from the state of disorganized complexity (uniformly distributed particles of matter) to the state of singularity (pure love-energy, without any particles):

"Reduced to its ultimate essence, the substance of these long pages can be summed up in this simple affirmation: that if the universe, regarded sidereally, is in process of spatial expansion (from the infinitesimal to the immense), in the same way and still more clearly it presents itself to us, physicochemically, as in process of organic involution upon itself (from the extremely simple to the extremely complex)—and, moreover this particular involution 'of complexity' is experimentally bound up with a correlative increase in interiorisation, that is to say in the psyche or consciousness."
—Chardin, Pierre Teilhard de, The Phenomenon of Man

The Omega Point (the Millennium, "the end of the world as we know it") is the period immediately preceding the singularity (the end of the world proper). During the Omega Point, the universe is in the state of organized complexity, being neither uniformly distributed nor completely singular (essentially already singular, formally still complex). For the sake of simplicity, Teilhard visualizes the Omega-universe as a single spiral galaxy,[1] whose nucleus is self-reflective (turned in upon itself) and plays the role of a conscious observer, quantum-mechanically orchestrating the rest of the "galaxy." Currently, the role of the conscious quantum-mechanical observer is played by mankind, acting as a collective Christ:

"One might say that, by virtue of human reflection (both individual and collective), evolution, overflowing the physico-chemical organisation of bodies, turns back upon itself and thereby reinforces itself (see note following) with a new organising power vastly concentric to the first—the cognitive organisation of the universe. To think the world (as physics is beginning to realise) is not merely to register it but to confer upon it a form of unity it would otherwise (i.e. without being thought) be without."
—Chardin, Pierre Teilhard de, The Phenomenon of Man

Having reached the limit of its organized complexity, the collective Christ—mankind—will make a leap to a higher degree of singularity by dying and delegating all of its universe-orchestrating power to the single survivor, who will be automatically promoted to the rank of Christ personal:

"The end of the world: the wholesale internal introversion upon itself of the noosphere, which has simultaneously reached the uttermost limit of its complexity and its centrality.
The end of the world: the overthrow of equilibrium, detaching the mind, fulfilled at last, from its material matrix, so that it will henceforth rest with all its weight on God-Omega."
—Chardin, Pierre Teilhard de, The Phenomenon of Man

An orchestra with multiple conductors cannot produce anything but an incoherent cacophony. When the number of the conductors becomes reduced to a single man, the orchestra shifts from cacophony to symphony, turning into the conductor's "extended body." Analogously, when the universe is quantum-mechanically orchestrated by billions of human observers, it is incoherent (objective)—every part exists by itself, obeying the principle of locality. Having become orchestrated by a single human observer (Christ personal), the universe will shed its incoherence (objectivity) and turn into the observer's "cosmic body":

"Christ has a cosmic body that extends throughout the universe."
—Chardin, Pierre Teilhard de, Cosmic Life ♦ 1916

"Through the incarnation, God descended into nature in order to super-animate and take it back to him."
—Chardin, Pierre Teilhard de, Mysticism of Science ♦ 1939

The timing of the Omega Point:

According to Telhard, mankind will collapse into Christ personal upon reaching the limit of its organized complexity (information). That moment is coming apace and hastening:
- In 2005, information was doubling every 36 months.
- In June 2008, information was doubling every 11 months.
- On 4 August 2010, Google CEO Eric Schmidt said: "Every two days now we create as much information as we did from the dawn of civilization up until 2003."
- By the end of 2010, information will be doubling every 11 hours.

But it is another aspect of the holographic bound that is truly astonishing. Namely, that the maximum possible entropy depends on the boundary area instead of the volume. Imagine that we are piling up computer memory chips in a big heap. The number of transistors— the total data storage capacity—increases with the volume of the heap. So, too, does the total thermodynamic entropy of all the chips. Remarkably, though, the theoretical ultimate information capacity of the space occupied by the heap increases only with the surface area. Because volume increases more rapidly than surface area, at some point the entropy of all the chips would exceed the holographic bound. It would seem that either the generalized second law or our commonsense ideas of entropy and information capacity must fail. In fact, what fails is the pile itself: it would collapse under its own gravity and form a black hole before that impasse was reached.
—Bekenstein, Jacob D., Information in the Holographic Universe Scientific American, August 2003

Five attributes of the Omega Point:
Teilhard de Chardin's The Phenomenon of Man states that the Omega Point must possess the following five attributes. It is:

- Already existing. Only thus can the rise of the universe towards higher stages of consciousness be explained.
- Personal – an intellectual being and not an abstract idea or a human collective. The increasing complexity of matter has not only led to higher forms of consciousness, but accordingly to more personalization, of which human beings are the highest attained form in the known universe. They are completely individualized, free centers of operation. It is in this way that man is said to be made in the image of God, who is the highest form of personality. Teilhard expressly stated that in the Omega Point, when the universe becomes One, human persons will not be suppressed, but super-personalized. Personality will be infinitely enriched. This is because the Omega Point unites creation, and the more it unites, the increasing complexity of the universe aids in higher levels of consciousness. Thus, as God creates, the universe evolves towards higher forms of complexity, consciousness, and finally with humans, personality, because God, who is drawing the universe towards Him, is a person.
- Transcendent. The Omega Point cannot be the result of the universe's final complex stage of itself on consciousness. Instead, the Omega Point must exist even before the universe's evolution, because the Omega Point is responsible for the rise of the universe towards more complexity, consciousness and personality. Which essentially means that the Omega Point is outside the framework in which the universe rises, because it is by the attraction of the Omega Point that the universe evolves towards Him.
- Autonomous. That is, free from the limitations of space (nonlocality) and time (atemporality).
- Irreversible. That is attainable and imperative; it must happen and cannot be undone.

Technological singularity as a rival concept:
Some transhumanists argue that the accelerating technological progress inherent in the Law of Accelerating Returns will, in the relatively near future, lead to what Vernor Vinge called a technological singularity or "prediction wall." These transhumanists believe we will soon enter a time in which we must eventually make the transition to a "runaway positive feedback loop"[4] in high-level autonomous machine computation. A result will be that our technological and computational tools eventually completely surpass human capacities. Some transhumanist writings refer to this moment as the Omega Point, paying homage to Teilhard's prior use of the term, though Teilhard himself denounces the belief in a collective technological singularity as a form of cowardice. He foresees that at the approaches to the Omega Point, mankind will, for the last time, become split over the concept of its final state. The overwhelming majority will erroneously imagine the final state as a collective technological singularity within the framework of the current physical laws. A tiny minority will remain loyal to the idea of a supernatural singularity in Christ, "transcending the dimensions and the framework of the visible universe":

"Enormous powers will he liberated in mankind by the inner play of its cohesion: though it may be that this energy will still be employed discordantly tomorrow, as today and in the past. Are we to foresee a mechanising synergy under brute force, or a synergy of sympathy? Are we to foresee man seeking to fulfil himself collectively upon himself, or personally on a greater than himself? Refusal or acceptance of Omega? A conflict may supervene. In that case the noosphere, in the course of and by virtue of the process which draws it together, will, when it has reached its point of unification, split into two zones each attracted to an opposite pole of adoration. Thought has never completely united upon itself here below. Universal love would only vivify and detach finally a fraction of the noosphere so as to consummate it—the part which decided to ‘cross the threshold’, to get outside itself into the other. Ramification once again, for the last time." <...>

"The death of the materially exhausted planet; the split of the noosphere, divided on the form to be given to its unity; and simultaneously (endowing the event with all its significance and with all its value) the liberation of that percentage of the universe which, across time, space and evil, will have succeeded in laboriously synthesising itself to the very end. Not an indefinite progress, which is an hypothesis contradicted by the convergent nature of noogenesis, but an ecstasy transcending the dimensions and the framework of the visible universe." <...>

"The idea is that of noogenesis ascending irreversibly towards Omega through the strictly limited cycle of a geogenesis. At a given moment in the future, under some influence exerted by one or the other of these curves or of both together, it is inevitable that the two branches should separate. However convergent it be, evolution cannot attain to fulfilment on earth except through a point of dissociation. With this we are introduced to a fantastic and inevitable event which now begins to take shape in our perspective, the event which comes nearer with every day that passes: the end of all life on our globe, the death of the planet, the ultimate phase of the phenomenon of man."
—Chardin, Pierre Teilhard de, The Phenomenon of Man

Apocalypticism

Apocalypticism is the religious belief that there will be an apocalypse, a term which originally referred to a revelation of God's will, but now usually refers to belief that the world will come to an end time very soon, even within one's own lifetime. This belief is usually accompanied by the idea that civilization, as we know it, will soon come to a tumultuous end with some sort of catastrophic global event such as war. Apocalypticism is often conjoined with esoteric knowledge that will likely be revealed in a major confrontation between good and evil forces, destined to change the course of history. Apocalypses can be viewed as good, evil, ambiguous or neutral, depending on the particular religion or belief system promoting them. They can appear as a personal or group tendency, an outlook or a perceptual frame of reference, or merely as expressions in a speaker's rhetorical style.

Jewish apocalypticism:

Jewish apocalypticism holds a doctrine that there are two eras of history, the present era which is ruled over by evil, and a coming era to be ruled over by God. At the time of the coming era, there will be a messiah which will deliver the faithful into the new era. Due to incidents arising very early on in Jewish history, predictions about the time of the coming of the Jewish messiah was highly discouraged. This was so as to prevent people from losing faith when the predictions did not come true during the lifespan of a believer.
Moses of Crete, a rabbi in the 5th century claimed to be the Jewish messiah and promised to lead the people, like the ancient Moses, through a parted sea back to Palestine. His followers left their possessions and waited for the promised day, when at his command many cast themselves into the sea, some finding death, others being rescued by sailors.

Christian apocalypticism:

Christian apocalypticism is based on Jewish apocalypticism, and therefore holds consistent with the doctrine of two eras. John the Baptist, Jesus Christ, and the Apostles were all apocalypticists who preached to their followers that the world would end within their own lifetimes. The apocalyptic preaching of John the Baptist and the Apostles is well known and accepted as historical by religious and secular scholars due to extensive extra-biblical historical accounts of their lives. However, the apocalyptic message of Jesus as expressed in the synoptic gospels is much less well known. Jesus' apocalyptic teachings are usually not emphasized in Christian religious education. However, some secular scholars believe that Jesus' apocalyptic teachings were the central message Jesus intended to impart, more central even than his messianism.
Various Christian eschatological systems have developed, providing different frameworks for understanding the timing and nature of apocalyptic predictions. Some like dispensational premillennialism tend more toward an apocalyptic vision, while others like postmillennialism and amillennialism, while teaching that the end of the world could come at any moment, tend to focus on the present life and contend that one should not attempt to predict when the end should come, though there have been exceptions such as postmillennialist Jonathan Edwards, who attempted to calculate the precise timing of the end times.

Jesus' apocalypticism:

The gospels portray Jesus as an apocalyptic prophet, described by himself and by others as the Son of Man – translated as the Son of Humanity – and hailing the restoration of Israel. Jesus himself, as the Son of God, a description also used by himself and others for him, was to rule this kingdom as lord of the Twelve Apostles, the judges of the twelve tribes.
Albert Schweitzer emphasized that Jesus was an apocalyptic prophet, preparing his fellow Jews for the imminent end of the world. In fact, Schweitzer saw Jesus as a failed, would-be Messiah whose ethic was suitable only for the short interim before the apocalypse. Many historians concur that Jesus was an apocalyptic prophet, most notably Paula Fredriksen, Bart Ehrman, and John P. Meier. E. P. Sanders portrays Jesus as expecting to assume the "viceroy" position in God's kingdom, above the Twelve Disciples, who would judge the twelve tribes, but below God. He concludes, however, that Jesus seems to have rejected the title Messiah, and he contends that the evidence is uncertain to whether Jesus meant himself when he referred to the Son of Man coming on the clouds as a divine judge (see also Daniel's Vision of Chapter 7), and further states that biblical references to the Son of Man as a suffering figure are not genuine.
However, the prevailing popular exegesis is not that Jesus was a failed would-be Messiah, nor an apocalypicist. One interpretation is that he didn't expect a world-ending apocalypse within his own life time, but rather a "personal apocalypse", i.e., the end of his own life. Although there is little, if any, Biblical corroboration of the 'personal apocalypse' interpretation. The 'personal apocalypse' theory caveat could be interpreted as a rebuttal in that Jesus never predicted an actual apocalypse at all. Jesus' cryptic style of presentation called for the listener to interpret the words he spoke in any way they desired. 'Personal apocalypse' could refer to the metaphorical apocalypse of the Book of Revelation in that the battle between good and evil wages daily within the hearts and souls of those who believe and will only end the day that individual's life comes to an end. Most Christian believers and theologians, however, interpret the Book of Revelation, which was written by John of Patmos and not Jesus Christ himself, to mean an actual, literal apocalypse with very little backing to support that claim other than Bibical references.
One account supporting the interpretation of Jesus' apocalypticism is at the crucifixion. After there is no apocalypse upon his crucifixion as he believed there would be, he asks on the Cross, "Why hast thou forsaken me?" The disciples then have to change their interpretation of Jesus' message as portrayed in Acts of the Apostles
The preaching of John was, "Repent, for the kingdom of heaven is at hand" (Mat. 3:2), and Jesus also taught this same message (Mat 4:17; Mark 1:15). Additionally, Jesus spoke of the signs of "the close of the age" in the Olivet Discourse in Mat 24 (and parallels), near the end of which he said, "[T]his generation will not pass away until all these things take place" (v. 34). Interpreters have understood this phrase in a variety of ways, some saying that most of what he described was in fact fulfilled in the destruction of the Temple in the Roman Siege of Jerusalem (see Preterism), and some that "generation" should be understood instead to mean "race" (see NIV marginal note on Mat 24:34) among other explanations.

Year 1000:

There are a few recorded instances of apocalypticism leading up to the year 1000. However they mostly rely on one source, Rodulfus Glaber.

Domesday Book:

When William the Conqueror, initiated a census of his conquered land, the "Domesday Book", as it was called, was interpreted by the many of the English as being the "Book of Life" written of in Revelation. The belief was that when the book was completed, the end of the world would come.

Fifth Monarchy Men:

The Fifth Monarchy Men were active from 1649 to 1661 during the Interregnum, following the English Civil Wars of the 17th century. They took their name from a belief in a world-ruling kingdom to be established by a returning Jesus in which prominently figures the year 1666 and its numerical relationship to a passage in the Biblical Book of Revelation indicating the end of earthly rule by carnal human beings.
Around 1649, there was great social unrest in England and many people turned to Oliver Cromwell as England's new leader. The Parliamentary victors of the First English Civil War failed to negotiate a constitutional settlement with the defeated King Charles I. Members of Parliament and the Grandees in the New Model Army, when faced with Charles's perceived duplicity, reluctantly tried and executed him.

Isaac Newton and the end of the world in 2060:

Isaac Newton proposed that the world would not end until the year 2060, based largely on his own study and deciphering of Bible codes.

Millerites and Seventh-day Adventists:

The Millerites were the followers of the teachings of William Miller who, in 1833, first shared publicly his belief in the coming Second Advent of Jesus Christ in roughly the year 1843.

The ideological descendants of the Millerites are the Seventh-day Adventists, who are distinguished among Christian denominations for their emphasis on the imminent second coming of Jesus Christ.

Apocalypticism in Islam:

Prophet Muhammad prophesied of an Islamic leader, or Mahdi (Al-Mahdi literally translates to the "Guided One") who will rise against the notion of globally corrupt materialism, advocate justice and identify the true Messiah whom the Judaic and Christian scriptures are familiar with.

Apocalypticism in contemporary culture:

Apocalypticism is a frequent theme of literature, film and television.

Y2K:

Apocalypticism was especially evident with the approach of the millennial year 2000, in which some predicted a massive computer crash which would throw global commerce and financial systems into chaos. These predictions did not come true, although a few remarkable isolated events did occur due to the glitches in computer coding on which these predictions focused.

Mayan calendar 2012:

The 2012 doomsday prediction is a present-day cultural meme proposing that cataclysmic and apocalyptic events will occur on December 21, 2012. This idea has been disseminated by numerous books, Internet sites and by TV documentaries with increasing frequency since the late 1990s. The forecast is based primarily on what is claimed to be the end-date of the Mesoamerican Long Count calendar, which is presented as lasting 5,125 years and as terminating on December 21 or 23, 2012, along with interpretations of assorted legends, scriptures, numerological constructions and prophecies.

Arvo Part

Arvo Pärt (born 11 September 1935; Estonian pronunciation: [ˈɑrvo ˈpært]) is an Estonian classical composer. Since the late 1970s, Pärt has worked in a minimalist style that employs a self-made compositional technique called tintinnabuli. His music also finds its inspiration and influence from Gregorian chant.^[1]

He was born in Paide, Järva County, Estonia. Continuing struggles with Soviet officials led him to emigrate in 1980 with his wife and their two sons. Pärt lived first in Vienna, Austria, where he took Austrian citizenship, and then re-located to Berlin, Germany. He returned to Estonia around the turn of the century and now lives in Tallinn.^[2]

Musical development

Familiar works by Pärt are Cantus In Memoriam Benjamin Britten for string orchestra and bell (1977) and the string quintet "Fratres I" (1977, revised 1983), which he orchestrated for string orchestra and percussion, the solo violin "Fratres II" and the cello ensemble "Fratres III" (both 1980).

Pärt is often identified with the school of minimalism and, more specifically, that of mystic minimalism or holy minimalism.^[3] He is considered a pioneer of this style, along with contemporaries Henryk Górecki and John Tavener.^[4] Although his fame initially rested on instrumental works such as Tabula Rasa and Spiegel im Spiegel, his choral works have also come to be widely appreciated.

Pärt's musical education began at age seven. He began attending music school in Rakvere, where his family lived. By the time he reached his early teen years, Pärt was writing his own compositions. While studying composition with Heino Eller at the Tallinn Conservatory in 1957,^[2] it was said of him that "he just seemed to shake his sleeves and notes would fall out."

In this period of Estonian history, Pärt was unable to encounter many musical influences from outside the Soviet Union except for a few illegal tapes and scores. Although Estonia had been an independent Baltic state at the time of Pärt's birth, the Soviet Union occupied it in 1940 as a result of the Soviet-Nazi Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact; and the country would then remain under Soviet domination—except for the three-year period of German wartime occupation—for the next 51 years.

Musical oeuvre

Pärt's oeuvre is generally divided into two periods.

His early works ranged from rather severe neo-classical styles influenced by Shostakovich, Prokofiev, and Bartók. He then began to compose using Schoenberg's twelve-tone technique and serialism. This, however, not only earned the ire of the Soviet establishment, but also proved to be a creative dead-end. When early works were banned by Soviet censors, Pärt entered the first of several periods of contemplative silence, during which he studied choral music from the 14th to 16th centuries.^[2] In this context, Pärt's biographer, Paul Hillier, observed that "He had reached a position of complete despair in which the composition of music appeared to be the most futile of gestures, and he lacked the musical faith and will-power to write even a single note."

The spirit of early European polyphony informed the composition of Pärt's transitional Third Symphony (1971); and thereafter, he immersed himself in early music, re-investigating the roots of Western music. He studied plainsong, Gregorian chant, and the emergence of polyphony in the European Renaissance.

The music that began to emerge after this period was radically different. This period of new compositions included Fratres, Cantus In Memoriam Benjamin Britten, and Tabula Rasa.^[2] Pärt describes the music of this period as tintinnabuli — like the ringing of bells. Spiegel im Spiegel (1978) is a well-known example which has been used in many films. The music is characterized by simple harmonies, often single unadorned notes, or triads, which form the basis of Western harmony. These are reminiscent of ringing bells. Tintinnabuli works are rhythmically simple and do not change tempo. The influence of early European music is clear.^{[citation needed]} Another characteristic of Pärt's later works is that they are frequently settings for sacred texts, although he mostly chooses Latin or the Church Slavonic language used in Orthodox liturgy instead of his native Estonian language. Large-scale works inspired by religious texts include St. John Passion, Te Deum, andLitany. Choral works from this period include Magnificat and The Beatitudes.^[2]

Of his popularity, Steve Reich has written:"Even in Estonia, Arvo was getting the same feeling that we were all getting. [...] I love his music, and I love the fact that he is such a brave, talented man. [...] He's completely out of step with the zeitgeist and yet he's enormously popular, which is so inspiring. His music fulfills a deep human need that has nothing to do with fashion." Pärt's music came to public attention in the West, largely thanks to Manfred Eicher who recorded several of Pärt's compositions for ECM Records starting in 1984.

Pärt has said that his music is similar to light going through a prism: the music may have a slightly different meaning for each listener, thus creating a spectrum of musical experience, similar to the rainbow of light.

He and his music were portrayed at the Rheingau Musik Festival 2005 in four concerts. Chamber music included Für Alina for piano, played by himself, Spiegel im Spiegel and Psalom for string quartet. The chamber orchestra of the Bavarian Radio Symphony Orchestra played hisTrisagion, Fratres and Cantus along with works of Bach. The Windsbach Boys Choir and soloists Sibylla Rubens, Ingeborg Danz, Markus Schäfer and Klaus Mertens performed Magnificat and Collage über B-A-C-H together with two cantatas of Bach and one of Mendelssohn. TheHilliard Ensemble, organist Christopher Bowers-Broadbent, the Rostocker Motettenchor and the Hilliard instrumental ensemble, conducted byMarkus Johannes Langer, performed a program of Pärt's organ music and works for voices (some a cappella), including Pari Intervallo, De profundis and Miserere.

A new composition, Für Lennart, written for the memory of the Estonian President Lennart Meri, was played at his funeral service on 2 April 2006.

In response to the murder of the Russian journalist Anna Politkovskaya in Moscow on 7 October 2006, Pärt declared that all his works performed in 2006–2007 would be in commemoration of her death:

"Anna Politkovskaya staked her entire talent, energy and—in the end—even her life on saving people who had become victims of the abuses prevailing in Russia."— Arvo Pärt

Pärt was honored as the featured composer of the 2008 RTÉ Living Music Festival^[5] in Dublin, Ireland. He was also commissioned by Louth Contemporary Music Society^[6] to compose a new choral work based on St. Patricks Breastplate, which premiered in 2008 in Louth, Ireland. The new work is called The Deers Cry. This is the composer's first Irish commission, having its debut in Drogheda and Dundalk in February 2008.

Also a new composition in 2008 is Symphony No. 4, named “Los Angeles” and dedicated to Mikhail Khodorkovsky. It is his first symphony written for over 37 years, since 1971's Symphony No. 3. It premiered in Los Angeles, California, at the Walt Disney Concert Hall on January 10, 2009.^[7]

Selected works

Works for voices and orchestra

• Our Garden, Cantata for children's chorus and orchestra (1959/2003)
• Credo for chorus, orchestra, and piano solo (1968)
• Wallfahrtslied for tenor or baritone and string orchestra (1984/2000)
• Te Deum for chorus, string orchestra and tape (1984–5, rev 1992)
• Berlin Mass for chorus and organ or string orchestra (1992)
• Litany for soloists, chorus and orchestra (1994)
• I am the true vine for choir a cappella (1996)
• Como cierva sedienta for soprano, chorus and orchestra (1998)
• Cantiques des degrés for chorus and orchestra (1999/2002)
• Cecilia, vergine romana for chorus and orchestra (1999/2002)
• In Principio for chorus and orchestra (2003)

Works for voices and ensemble (or piano)

• An den Wassern zu Babel saßen wir und weinten for voices or choir and organ or ensemble (1976/1984)
• Sarah Was Ninety Years Old for three voices, percussion and organ (1977/1990)
• De profundis for chorus, percussion and organ (1980)
• Passio Domini Nostri Jesu Christi secundum Joannem for soloists, vocal ensemble, choir and instrumental ensemble (1982)
• Es sang vor langen Jahren for alto, violin and viola (1984)
• Wallfahrtslied for tenor or baritone and string quartet (1984)
• Stabat Mater for 3 voices and string trio (1985)
• Miserere for solosts, choir, ensemble and organ (1989/1992)
• My Heart is in the Highlands for countertenor and organ (2000)
• Zwei Wiegenlieder for two women’s voices and piano (2002)
• L'Abbé Agathon for soprano, four violas and four celli (2004/2005)

Works for chorus (and organ)

• An den Wassern Babylons saßen wir und weinten for voices and organ (1976/1984)
• Missa syllabica for chorus and organ (1977)
• Summa for chorus (1977)
• De profundis for mens voices, percussion (ad lib.) and organ (1980)
• Magnificat for chorus (1989)
• Bogoroditse Djevo for chorus (1990)
• Hildegard Curth gewidmet – The Beatitudes (1990)
• And One of the Pharisees for three voices (1992)
• Dopo la Vittoria for chorus (1996)
• I Am the True Vine (1996)
• Kanon Pokajanen for chorus (1997)
• Triodion for chorus (1998)
• Which Was the Son of... (2000)
• Littlemore Tractus for chorus and organ (2001)
• Nunc Dimittis for chorus (2001)
• Salve Regina for chorus and organ (2001)
• Peace upon you, Jerusalem for female chorus (2002)
• Most Holy Mother of God for four voices (2003)
• Da Pacem Domine for four voices (2004)
• Anthem written for St John's College, Oxford (2005)
• The Deer's Cry written for chorus for Louth Contemporary Music Society, Ireland (2008)

Orchestral works

• Nekrolog for orchestra op.5 (1960)
• Symphony No. 1 Polyphonic op.9 (1963)
• Perpetuum mobile for orchestra op.10 (1963)
• Symphony No. 2 for orchestra (1966)
• Symphony No. 3 for orchestra (1971)
• Wenn Bach Bienen gezüchtet hätte ... for piano, wind quintet, string orchestra and percussion (1976)
• Fratres for chamber ensemble (1976 and on, many versions)
• Arbos for brass and percussion (1977/1986)
• Cantus In Memoriam Benjamin Britten for string orchestra and bell (1977)
• Psalom for string orchestra (1985/1995/1997)
• Festina Lente for string orchestra and harp (1988)
• Summa for string orchestra (1991)
• Silouans Song for string orchestra (1991)
• Trisagion for string orchestra (1992)
• Mein Weg for 14 string players and percussion (1999)
• Orient & Occident for string orchestra (2000)
• Lennartile / Für Lennart for string orchestra (2006)
• La Sindone for orchestra and percussion (2006)
• Symphony No. 4 Los Angeles (2008)

Works for solo instruments and orchestra

• Collage sur B-A-C-H, for oboe, string orchestra, harpsichord, and piano (1964)
• Pro et Contra, concerto for cello and orchestra (1966, for Mstislav Rostropovich)
• Credo for chorus, orchestra, and piano solo (1968)
• Tabula Rasa, double concerto for two violins, string orchestra, and prepared piano (1977)
• Fratres for violin, string orchestra and percussion (1992)
• Concerto piccolo über B-A-C-H for trumpet, string orchestra, harpsichord and piano (1994)
• Darf ich ... for violin, bells and string orchestra (1995/1999)
• Lamentate for piano and orchestra (2002)
• Passacaglia for violin, string orchestra and vibraphone (2003/2007, for Gidon Kremer's 60th birthday)

Instrumental works

• Music for a Children's Theatre, Four Dances: Puss in Boots, Red-Riding-Hood and Wolf, Butterfly, Dance of the Ducklings, for piano (1956/1957)
• 2 Sonatinen op.1, for piano (1958/1959)
• Quintettino op.13, for wind quintet (1964)
• Collage über B-A-C-H for oboe and strings (1964)
• Für Alina for piano (1976)
• Pari Intervallo for organ (1976/1981)
• Variationen zur Gesundung von Arinuschka for piano (1977)
• Spiegel im Spiegel for violin or cello and piano (1978)
• Fratres for violin and piano (1980)
• Annum per annum for organ (1980)
• Pari intervallo for organ (1981)
• Hymn to a Great City for two pianos (1984/2000)
• Trivium for organ (1988)
• Summa for string quartet (1990)
• Berliner Messe for SATB soloists and organ (1990)
• Psalom for string quartet (1991/1993)
• Mozart-Adagio for violin, cello and piano (1992/1997, from Mozart's Piano Sonata in F major (K 280))
• Passacaglia for violin and piano (2003)

Awards

• 1996 — American Academy of Arts and Letters Department of Music
• 1996 — Honorary Doctor of Music, University of Sydney^[8]
• 2003 — Honorary Doctor of Music, University of Durham^[9]
• 2008 — Léonie Sonning Music Prize
• 2009 — Honorary Doctor of Music, University of St Andrews^[10]

Filmography

Pärt's music has been featured in over 50 films, from Väike motoroller (1962) to Promised Land (2004).

• Elements from the Cantus in Memory of Benjamin Britten was used in Léos Carax's film Les Amants du Pont-Neuf (1991); and a part of the composition was heard in Michael Moore's film Fahrenheit 9/11 while the audience confronts the aftermath of the September 11, 2001, attacks in New York City.
• Segments from Spiegel im Spiegel were incorporated in Mike Nichols's film version of the Pulitzer Prize-winning play Wit (2001); in the mountain-climbing documentary Touching the Void (2003); in Tom Tykwer's film Heaven (2002); in Shona Auerbach's Glasgow based filmDear Frankie (2004); in Gus Van Sant's film Gerry (2003) which also included a small segment from Für Alina ; and in the film Elegy (2008).
• Tabula Rasa was used in the opening scenes of the award-winning 2001 documentary War Photographer, about photojournalist James Nachtwey.
• His soundtrack for Reha Erdem's Times and Winds (in Turkish Beş Vakit), 2006, underscored Erdem's subject, the endlessly repeating seasonal and human rhythms of Turkish village life.
• Annum per Annum was used in the 1998 film The Thin Red Line.
• Fratres for Cello and Piano was used in the soundtrack for the 2007 film There Will Be Blood.
• Silouans Song was used in the 2006 movie The Good Shepherd.
• Dorian Supin, an Estonian filmmaker, made a full-length documentary on Pärt titled 24 Preludes for a Fugue, which was released in 2002.
• Litany was used in the 1999 movie The Insider.